Practitioner Handbook
Glossary of Terms
Aluminum
Symbol: Al
Atomic Number: 13
This metal is found everywhere, being the most prevalent heavy
metal in the Earth's crust. Possible sources of aluminum exposure
include drinking water (especially from areas exposed to acid
rain), aluminum cookware, and aluminum-containing medications
such as Maalox. However, it is also commonly ingested in foods
and in medicines, such as antacids, and is used in cosmetics.
Many scientists feel that, because of its prevalence in the earth
and its common uses, it is not actually very toxic. Aluminum
is not a true heavy metal-i.e. it is low molecular weight (number
13 on the "periodic" table of elements) and behaves differently
from metals such as lead or mercury. The human body's range of
aluminum is between 50 and 150 mg., with an average of about
65 mg. Most of this mineral can be found in the lungs, kidneys,
bone, brain, liver, and the thyroid. Human daily intake of aluminum
has been estimated to range between 10-110 mg., but the body
will tend to eliminate most of this in the feces and urine with
some in the sweat. With lowered kidney function, more aluminum
will be stored, particularly in the bones. For most people, the
greatest aluminum intake comes from food additives such as sodium
aluminum phosphate (an emulsifier in processed cheese), potassium
alum (used to whiten flour), and sodium silicoaluminate and/or
aluminum calcium silicate (added to common table salt to help
it pour freely and not stick together). In the use of aluminum
pots or pans and foil, some aluminum leaches into the food we
eat, particularly with acidic foods such as tomatoes. Some antacids
contain aluminum hydroxide and even some children's aspirins
have been found to contain aluminum. Other common sources are:
anti-perspirants, toothpaste, dental amalgams, cosmetics, baby
powder, and cigarette filters, some drinking waters and commercial
teas and baking powder. This word comes to us from the Latin
word alumen.
Antimony
Symbol: Sb
Atomic Number: 51
This metal is accumulated in the hair of antimony-exposed workers
and their children, with higher levels observed in the children's
hair. Environmental pollution (via airborne particles from smelting
processes and phosphorus fertilizer production) leads to these
elevated hair levels. It has been suggested that antimony is
only slightly toxic in human beings, though in rats it affects
the heart and reduces the life span. However, elevated levels
of antimony can cause acute symptoms of the gastrointestinal
tract and cause damage to the liver, kidneys, and heart. Common
sources of antimony are tobacco, solder, flame retardants in
textiles, mining, food and water, with some from the air. This
is in addition to pottery glazes and cooking utensils, where
it may be used as well. The approximately 100 mcg. consumed daily
is poorly absorbed, with most being eliminated in fecal matter
and urine. Whatever isn't eliminated may be stored in the liver,
adrenals, thyroid, spleen, kidneys, blood, and hair. This term
derives from a combination of Greek words anti (opposed) and
monos (solitude).
Arsenic
Symbol: As
Atomic Number: 33
This use of arsenic is responsible for a 2000% increase in the
arsenic levels found in humans since ancient times. Generally,
there is about 10-20 mg. of arsenic in the human body; but higher
levels may lead to problems. Arsenic may accumulate with decreased
kidney function. Fortunately, arsenic absorption is fairly low,
usually less than 5 percent, so most is eliminated in the feces
and some in the urine. Arsenic is deposited in the liver, kidney,
spleen, hair, nails, skin, bone and muscle. It is present in
the ocean, and the most common source is contaminated seafood
and shellfish, especially filtering mollusks such as clams and
oysters. Cereals are a major source of arsenic during infancy
and increases in hair arsenic levels during infancy correspond
to the introduction of cereals into the infant's diet. Other
common sources of arsenic are: processes for the production of
semiconductor or photoelectric components; electroplating, galvanizing
and etching processes; defoliants and some fungicides and pesticides;
fireworks (intense white or blue flame colors; leather tanning
and taxidermy (arsenic trioxide); chemical process industry (reagents,
catalysts); textile printing (arsenic disulfide for calicos);
lead and copper alloys (cable sheaths, solders, shot); specialty
glass manufacture (opal glass, IR transmitting, decolorizing).
It has also been used to preserve wood in preventing fungal growth
on coated surfaces (pressure-treated wood, "green" in color).
Arsenic is also present in small amounts in soil and therefore
is contained in our food. Arsenic is also found in many fuel
oils and coal, so it becomes an environmental pollutant when
these are burned. This comes from both the Greek word arsenikos
and the Latin word arsenicum.
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Barium
Symbol: Ba
Atomic Number: 56
Barium is an alkaline earth element, and is also a toxic heavy
metal. In 1774, minerals containing barium were identified by
Karl Scheele from which the pure metal was electrolyzed by Humphrey
Davy in 1808. Barium toxicity tends to be relatively low unless
there is ingestion of large amounts or aerosol exposure. Inhalation
of barium may cause temporary lung irritation. Accidental or
intentional ingestion of barium may result in diarrhea, vomiting
and abdominal pain. Human exposure to unsafe levels of barium
in contaminated drinking water can cause problems in the heart,
liver, stomach, kidneys and other organs. Some pesticides may
contain absorbable barium salts (hydroxide, chloride, or carbonate).
Common sources of barium are: compounds are used in medical testing
for X-ray evaluations; printing, ceramics, plastics, textiles,
and dyes; in fuel additives; paper, soap, and rubber; in the
production of glass, paints, and in pesticides. As barium becomes
absorbed, it can displace potassium inside the cell and cause
various degrees of effects in muscle tone, heart function, and
the nervous system. This term comes from the Greek word barys
meaning, "heavy."
Beryllium
Symbol: Be
Atomic Number: 4
Beryllium is a strong, light, heat resistant metal, with a very
high melting point. Beryllium, being toxic in humans, can reduce
stores of magnesium and decrease organ function, possibly through
interference with enzymes. In recent years, its use has increased
and it is found in neon signs and some electrical devices. Beryllium
is often part of an alloy used in bicycle wheels, fishing rods,
and metal household gadgets. Contamination with beryllium, primarily
from its industrial uses, is becoming more widespread. Industrial
smoke and rocket exhaust may contain harmful levels of beryllium.
Inhalation of Beryllium can cause shortness of coughing, breath,
phlegm and lung inflammation, which may lead to scarring and
disability. This term derives from the mineral beryl.
Bismuth
Symbol: Bi
Atomic Number: 83
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Bismuth is essentially nontoxic in ordinary amounts, but prolonged
exposure or excessive use may lead to toxicity. The human body
contains roughly 3 mg. of bismuth. Many people take in 20-30
mcg. per day, mostly in water, a minimal amount in food, and
some from airborne contamination. As with other metals, most
bismuth is eliminated in the feces and urine. Some common drugs,
especially remedies for the stomach, such as Pepto-Bismol, contain
bismuth. The term "bismuth" comes from the German word wissmuth,
meaning "white mass."
Bromine
Symbol: Br
Atomic Number: 35
Bromine, like chlorine and fluorine is a poisonous gas. Bromine
salts have been employed to treat acid indigestion or for sedation.
Bromine is able to displace chlorine in some body functions.
Too much bromine can cause toxicity in humans. Mild symptoms
may include fatigue, weakness, irritability, disturbed sleep,
slow mental processes and poor memory. Severe toxicity can cause
confusion and drowsiness, delirium, stupor, depression, hallucinations
and, in the extreme, psychosis. This term comes from the Greek
word brômos (stench).
Cadmium
Symbol: Cd
Atomic Number: 48
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Cadmium is toxic metal with a long history of detrimental effects.
Common sources of contamination are: cigarette smoke, refined
foods, water pipes, coffee and tea, coal burning, and shellfish.
A pack of cigarettes contains roughly 20 mcg. of cadmium, or
about 1 mcg. per cigarette. An estimated 30 percent of that goes
into the lungs and is absorbed, with the remaining 70 percent
entering the atmosphere and inhaled by others or polluting the
environment. As a little cadmium is stored every day, long-term
smoking can increase the risk of cadmium toxicity. Cadmium is
also used in alloys, in electrical materials, and is present
in ceramics, dental materials, and storage batteries. Soft or
acid water is corrosive and causes metals in water pipes to break
down, which releases cadmium and other minerals. On the other
hand, hard water, containing calcium and magnesium salts, actually
coats the pipes and protects against the leaching of other minerals.
Environmental air pollution of cadmium comes from zinc mining
and refining, and from the burning of coal. Soil levels of cadmium
are increased by cadmium in water, by sewage contamination, by
cadmium in the air, and by high-phosphate fertilizers. Due to
soil contamination by cadmium, root vegetables such as potatoes
may pick up more cadmium, and the grains can concentrate cadmium.
Seafood, particularly crustaceans, such as crab and lobster,
and mollusks, like oysters and clams, have higher cadmium levels,
though many are also higher in zinc, balancing the cadmium. Research
has shown that cadmium appears to depress some immune functions,
mainly by reducing host resistance to bacteria and viruses. Cadmium
comes from the Greek word kadmeia (the ancient name for calamine)
and from the Latin word cadmia.
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Chelation
Chelation (pronounced key-layshon) therapy is a series of intravenous
infusions, which contain disodium EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetra-acetic
Acid), and sometimes various other substances. Chelation was
originally developed during World War II as a technique for removing
toxic metals from the body. Chelating agents are substances,
which can chemically bind with metals, minerals, or chemical
toxins from the body. A chelating agent encloses a mineral or
metal ion and carries it from the body via the urine and feces.
Today, chelation therapy practitioners believe that by injecting
EDTA into the bloodstream, it will also remove much of the "calcium" accumulation
that may be clogging the bloodstream. Chelation therapy may be
an alternative way of cleansing the blood vessels to improve
blood flow. Supporters feel that EDTA chelation therapy may effective
against atherosclerosis and many other serious health problems.
Its use has become widespread because patients feel that it might
be valid alternative to established medical interventions such
as coronary bypass surgery. EDTA binds di- and trivalent metallic
ions to form a stable ring structure. EDTA is water-soluble and
binds only metallic ions that are dissolved in water. At the
normal pH of blood (pH 7.4), the strength with which EDTA "chelates" dissolved
metals, in decreasing order, is: iron+++ (ferric ion), mercury++,
copper++, aluminum+++, nickel++, lead++, cobalt++, zinc++, iron++
(ferrous ion), cadmium++, manganese++, magnesium++, and calcium++.
Chelation therapy practitioners say that by removing the calcium,
patients may reduce the risk of heart attack, stroke, high blood
pressure and other blood related diseases. Various organic acids
found in the body or in foods can act as chelating agents, including
citric acid, acetic acid, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and lactic
acid. The body's natural chelation processes are responsible
for such things as the digestion, assimilation, and transport
of food nutrients, the formation of enzymes and hormones, as
well as the detoxification of toxic chemicals and metals. The
origin of the term chelate, is from the Greek chele for claw,
refers to the "claw-like" structure of the organic chemical ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid (EDTA) first synthesized in Germany in the 1930s.
DMSA
Meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) is a sulfhydryl-containing,
water-soluble, orally-administered metal chelator which has been
used as an remedy for heavy metal toxicity since the 1950s. In
healthy individuals, roughly 20 percent of an oral dose of DMSA
is absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract. Ninety-five percent
of the DMSA that makes it to the bloodstream is binds to albumin.
Most probably, one of the sulfhydryls in DMSA binds to a cysteine
residue on albumin, leaving the other S-H available to chelate
metals. A study done with healthy fasting men indicated that
90 percent of the DMSA recovered in the urine was found to be
mixed disulfides of DMSA (DMSA attached to one or two cysteine
molecules), and 10 percent was free unchanged DMSA.
DMPS
DMPS (sodium salt of 2,3-dimercapto-1-propane sulfonic acid)
is not a new drug. Its history goes back to the former Soviet
Union in 1958. Later on, in 1978, DMPS became available to the
western world following its synthesis and production by Heyl,
a German pharmaceutical company. DMPS is a chelating agent in
the group of dithiols, along with succimer (DMSA, 2,3-dimercaptosuccinic
acid) and dimercaprol (BAL, British anti-Lewisite) and. DMPS
has been used quite extensively in Europe and on a limited basis
in North America as a treatment for mercury, arsenic or lead
intoxication. It is a registered drug in Germany and, as a matter
of fact, due to its long record of safety, is now available without
prescription. Against D-penicillamine and N-acetyl-DL-penicillamine,
DMPS was the most effective agent in clearing mercury from the
blood of victims of the Iraqi mercury catastrophe in the 1960's.
In addition to its safety and utility as a detoxification agent,
DMPS has been used also as an agent to estimate mercury body
burden. Oddly enough, resting urine or blood levels of mercury
bear little relationship to body burden of mercury in cases of
long standing, low level intoxication, such as that which may
occur from dental amalgams. This is due to the fact that mercury
is commonly bound in tissues and will not release unless infused
with a binding agent. DMPS is initially used to assess the body
burden of mercury and other heavy metals through provocation
testing (also known as a "challenge"). There are several methods
of performing this challenge. In one methodology, DMPS is given
as a slow intravenous push. The patient then provides the first
urine specimen after one to one and one half hours with the collection
being done for anywhere from 12-24 hours. The urine sample is
then sent overnight to a toxicology laboratory. Generally speaking
mercury and other heavy metals are reported as micrograms metal
per gram of urinary creatinine. When elevated levels of toxic
metals are no longer found with provocation urine testing, the
DMPS is of no further value and its use may discontinued. DMPS
is excreted mainly through the urine. DMPS is pervades both intracellularly
as well as extracellularly. However, unlike other chelating agents,
such as EDTA, DMPS does not pass the blood brain barrier and
does not redistribute mercury to the brain and central nervous
system. Numerous human studies have failed to indicate any significant
adverse impacts of DMPS upon human renal function, liver function,
immune system, cardiovascular system, blood, gastrointestinal
tract or any other organs or systems.
EDTA
EDTA, (Ethylene Diamine Tetra-acetic Acid) is a synthetic amino
acid and is approximately one third as toxic to the body as aspirin.
Chelation therapy with EDTA was first introduced in the medical
field in the U.S. in 1948 as a treatment for the lead poisoning
of workers in a battery factory. Shortly thereafter, the United
States Navy advocated chelation for sailors who had absorbed
lead while painting government ships and facilities. IV EDTA
chelation is FDA approved as a treatment for lead poisoning.
Interestingly, physicians using chelation for lead toxicity observed
that patients who also had atherosclerosis (fatty-plaque buildup
on arterial walls) or arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries)
experienced reductions in both conditions after chelation. More
than 1,800 scientific journal articles have been published on
the use of EDTA in intravenous chelation.
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Heavy Metals
Heavy metals can be defined as elements having atomic weights
between 63.546 and 200.590 (Kennish, 1992), and a specific gravity
greater than 4.0 (Connell et al., 1984). Living organisms require
trace amounts of some of these elements, including cobalt, copper,
iron, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, strontium, and zinc. However,
excessive levels of essential metals can be detrimental to the
organism. Since the Industrial Revolution, the production of
heavy metals such as lead, copper, and zinc has increased dramatically.
Between 1850 and 1990, production of these three metals increased
nearly 10 times, with a corresponding rise in their emissions.
The toxicity of heavy metals has been documented throughout history:
Roman and Greek physicians diagnosed symptoms of acute lead poisoning
well before toxicology became a science. The basic way these
heavy metals cause problems in the body is by displacing or replacing
related minerals that are vital for essential body functions.
For example, lead replaces calcium and cadmium can replace zinc;
when this occurs, the cadmium or lead is stored in the bones
or other tissues. These become harder to clear, while the key
functions of the minerals that are replaced cannot be carried
out. Although not normally found in or used by humans, environmental
pollution of these is leading to serious concerns. It is very
possible that these metals are causing more health issues than
has been realized by the medical community. Until recently, the
medical community's concern over metal toxicity was mainly concerned
with industrial exposure, where sometimes-dramatic measures were
performed to stimulate elimination of those metals. The full
ramifications, both direct and indirect, of human toxicity by
heavy metals warrants a thorough investigation so that the effects
of these can be quantified.
Lead
Symbol: Pb
Atomic Number: 82
Somewhere between 400,000 and 600,000 tons of lead per year
go into our atmosphere, onto our earth, into our food, and into
our body and tissues. Unlike most chemicals for which the health
impacts of low-level exposure are still uncertain, exposure to
lead, even at very low levels, is very toxic. Lead is the most
common toxic mineral as well as being the most abundant contaminant
of our environment and our body. Fortunately, lead is not the
most toxic element; cadmium and mercury are worse. Since lead
has a slightly sweet taste and children often eat or suck on
the paint chips from houses or out of the dirt, leading to many
cases of lead poisoning. The most widespread source of environmental
contamination is from the addition of tetraethyl lead to gasoline
as an anti-knock, higher-octane additive. Research has shown
that lead is a neurotoxin and commonly generates abnormal brain
and nerve function. It enters the brain and can in pregnant or
lactating mothers, contaminate the in-utero fetus and breast
milk. Lead is commonly stored in the bones as shown by "lead
lines" in the bones on X-rays. It is also stored in the adrenals,
thyroid, aorta, liver and other soft tissues. In just the United
States, it has been estimated that approximately 1.3 million
tons of lead are used yearly in solder, batteries, pottery, pigments,
gasoline, paint, and many other useful substances. Other sources
of lead contamination are lead industries, mining, and smelting,
piping, fixtures, insecticides and solder. Due to its unique
properties, it has been used widely as a pigment and drying agent
in primers, paints and enamels, inks, oils, resins and other
surface coatings for centuries. In drinking water, the major
source of lead is from the corrosion of leaded plumbing materials
in the water supply and household distribution systems. Lead
most likely interferes with functions performed by essential
minerals such as calcium, copper and zinc. In the human system,
lead interrupts several red blood cell enzyme systems, including
delta-aminolevulinic dehydratase and ferrochelatase. It may also
reduce hemoglobin synthesis and can react with cell membranes.
This may cause increased permeability of the cells and cause
damage to or even death of those cells. In the brain, lead may
create abnormal function by inactivating important zinc-, copper-,
and iron-dependent enzymes. Its symbol comes from the Latin word
plumbum (lead).
Mercury
Symbol: Hg
Atomic Number: 80
Mercury or sometimes called "quicksilver," is a shiny liquid
metal that is a widespread environmental contaminant. Recently,
interest has grown in the possible harmful health effects of
mercury leaching from dental amalgam fillings as well as the
increased consumption of fish contaminated with mercury. Methylmercury,
the common, poisonous form, occurs by methylation in aquatic
biota or sediments (both freshwater and ocean). This form of
mercury accumulates in aquatic animals and fish and moves up
the food chain reaching high concentrations in large fish and
predatory birds. Other forms of mercury such as ethyl mercury
and mercuric chloride are also very poisonous. Except for fish,
human intake of dietary mercury is negligible, unless the food
is directly contaminated. A daily diet of fish can cause 1 to
10 micrograms of mercury per day to be ingested with about 75%
of this normally as methylmercury. There is intriguing research
correlating increased hair mercury levels with certain health
conditions. As compared to our ancestors, modern humans have
much higher body levels of mercury, because of its greater use
in recent times. It has been used for more than 2,000 years.
Nowadays, the average person's body contains about 10-15 mg.
of mercury. Inhaled mercury fumes go into the blood, because
mercury is soluble and passes through the lungs. About 50 percent
of the body mercury is stored in the kidneys with the rest being
retained in the blood, bones, liver, spleen, brain, and fat tissue
also hold mercury. This potentially toxic heavy metal can penetrate
the blood brain barrier and nerve tissue, so central nervous
system symptoms may develop. As with both metals, mercury can
also get into a fetus through the umbilical cord and into breast
milk. Fortunately, some mercury is naturally eliminated daily
through the urine and feces. Common sources of mercury are dental
amalgams; explosive detonators; in pure liquid form for thermometers,
barometers and laboratory equipment; batteries and electrodes
and fungicides, pesticides and in the cosmetics industry. Other
sources of mercury are mirrors, explosives, latex paints, fabric
softeners, felt, floor waxes and polishes, sewage sludge, laxatives
containing calomel, cinnabar jewelry, tattoo dyes, and many others.
Its symbol comes from the Latin word hydrargyrum meaning "liquid
silver."
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Nickel
Symbol: Ni
Atomic Number: 28
Nickel accumulates with age as well as through smoking. Common
sources of exposure are appliances, buttons, ceramics, cocoa,
cold-wave hair permanent, cooking utensils, cosmetics, coins,
dental materials, food (chocolate, hydrogenated oils, nuts, food
grown near industrial areas), hair spray, industrial waste, jewelry,
orthodontic appliances, medical implants, metal refineries, metal
tools, nickel-cadmium batteries, shampoo, solid-waste incinerators,
stainless steel kitchen utensils, tap water, tobacco and tobacco
smoke, water faucets and pipes, and zippers. This term comes
from the German word kupfernickel, meaning "false copper."
Thallium
Symbol: Tl
Atomic Number: 81
Thallium was discovered in the 1800s by Sir William Crookes,
and was used in medical treatments, for venereal diseases, gout,
and tuberculosis. However, its toxicity caused it to be rarely
used, though thallium acetate continued to be employed for fungal
skin infections. Humans are not able to tolerate much thallium
in their bodies. This mineral and its salts enter the body through
our skin, respiratory tract, or gastrointestinal route. It can
be toxic in several ways; one way is that it can substitute for
potassium in certain functions within the red blood cells. Thallium
has significant toxic effects both with large acute exposure
and lower-level, chronic intake. Acute ingestion can result in
nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, fatigue, bloody diarrhea, and
fever. If people survive acute exposure, complications can affect
the kidneys, heart, and nervous system. The kidneys excrete most
ingested thallium; the remainder is stored in the kidney, heart,
muscle and brain. Chronic thallium poisoning may cause polyneuritis
with an inability to walk, fatigue, weight loss, and possibly
reduced immunity. Since it has no color or taste, thallium acetate
has been used as an intentional poison on several known occasions.
Its sources are industrial contamination; in electronics, thallium
is used in batteries or semiconductors; optical lenses, photo
film, jewelry, dyes and pigments, and fireworks. Until 1975 it
was used in pesticides and rodentocides. This comes from the
Greek word thallos, meaning "young shoot."
Tin
Symbol: Sn
Atomic Number: 50
Inorganic tin is deposited first in the kidneys and liver and
gradually distributes to bone tissue but only temporarily. Organic
tin distributes to the brain, liver, kidneys and the lymphatic
system. Sources of tine are tin-plated cans with damaged polymer
coatings, processed foods, toothpaste and perfumed soaps, metal
alloys (such as brass, bronze, and pewter), soldered joints in
cans and water systems, PVC plastic manufacture (as a heat stabilizer),
dyes and pigments, electroconductive coatings on glass (window
defrost systems), porcelain, ceramic glazes, biocides (triphenyl
and trialkyl tins), mining, smelting and ore processing facilities.
Depending upon chemical form and organ of deposition, its halftime
in the body is anywhere from 5 to 100 days. Tin excretion is
mainly through the urine. This comes from the Latin word stannum
(tin).
Uranium
Symbol: U
Atomic Number: 92
Uranium is probably toxic, but there is relatively little direct
exposure to it. Radon, on the other hand, which comes from the
radioactive decay of uranium, is a pollution concern in both
environmental air and water. Some drinking water sources, both
city and well, contain uranium. Some soil and dust are contaminated
as well. Uranium is a radioactive element and, like most others,
disintegrates eventually into lead. There is about 90 mcg. of
uranium in our body. Human ingestion of uranium from food and
water has low absorption and fair elimination. Uranium toxicity,
should it occur, usually affects the kidneys. The origin of this
term is after the planet Uranus.
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